Geographic Indications and International Trade (GIANT)

Geographic Indications and International Trade (GIANT)

 

Salmon
Wild vs. Farm raised

 

 

 

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Identification

1. The Issue

The Salmon industry has gone through major changes over the past decade. A primary issue today is the debate over wild vs. farm raised fish. Areas of concern range from the pollution created by fish farms, the escape and interbreeding of farm raised fish and the potentially harmful level's of PCB's in the farm raised variety. Farm-raised fish has become increasingly popular, primarily due to its lower price and year-around availability, but recent studies citing health concerns have the industry in turmoil. Are consumers at risk, and should they be given more adequate warnings and protection? Should the industry be overhauled, or are consumer advocates merely overreacting?

2. Description

Americans are eating more seafood than ever before. With 70% of it coming from restaurants, per capita consumption last year rose to 15.6 lbs., with salmon being the third most popular. However, what should be cause for celebration is fraught with controversy. A recent report from the journal Science found that farm-raised salmon contains a much larger level of contaminants that wild salmon. This is primarily due to PCB's (polychlorinated biphenyls) in the feed. One study regarding farmed salmon in Scotland claims that the product is so polluted that people should eat it only three times a year. In addition, as a result of their unnatural diets which are very high in oil content, they can be up to four times fattier than wild salmon. Such statements are potentially devastating to the farm-raised salmon industry. Some are now calling on Farmers to change fish feed and other practices, while consumers are being urged to buy only wild salmon. The impacts of such reports have been felt globally. In some areas it has been reported that retail sales of salmon products have fallen by as much as 70% and industry recovery is going to take considerable time. Fish farmers are unbowed. Advocates claim the reports are seriously misleading, and point out how farmed salmon is beneficial due to the presence of heart-healthy omega-3 fatty acids. It also has major advantages over wild salmon in that it is much cheaper and can be bought year-around.

Source: Alaska Journal of Commerce

3. Related Cases
Eelfarm
Indshrmp
Tilapia

4. Draft Author: Thomas Hommeyer (April, 2004)

Legal Clusters

5. Discourse and Status

The Center for Environmental Health (CEH) and Envronmental Working Group (EWG) have filed legal notice under California's main toxics law, Proposition 65, of plans to sue many manufacturers, distributors and retailers of farmed salmon over potentially dangerous levels of cancer-causing PCBs (polychlorninated biphenyls) in the fish. The groups are urging the salmon farming industry to stop feeding practices that result in high concentrations of toxic PCBs in their fish.

Numerous studies, including one published earlier this month in the peer-reviewed journal Science and an EWG study of supermarket fish in several U.S. cities released last summer, have found high concentrations of PCBs in farmed salmon, yet federal regulators have failed to take action.

The 50 defendants named in the filings include farmed salmon producers based in Canada and Europe, such as Marine Harvest, Panfish, Stolt Sea Farm, Heritage and Mainstream, as well as large U.S.-based retailers such as Safeway, Kroger, Albertson's and Costco.

PCBs in farmed salmon are high because fish farms typically raise salmon on feed high in fatty fish and fish oils. Since PCBs in the environment accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals, this diet results in fish with high concentrations of the carcinogenic chemical. But other companies, such as Black Pearl Salmon and Clare Island Sea Farm, regulate their feed and use other practices to minimize the PCB content in their products.

Proposition 65 is California's Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986, which ensures the public's right-to-know about toxic chemicals in consumer products and in the environment. The law provides that a company must either reformulate its product or notify consumers if the product contains a hazardous level of chemicals known to cause cancer or reproductive harm. After the 60-day notice period a formal lawsuit may be filed. Public interest groups like CEH and EWG use Prop. 65 to hold corporations accountable for their environmental and health impacts.

Additionally, the two groups are planning to sue for a State of California Proposition 65 warning label on farmed salmon. "A label will give consumers the power of information about exposure to PCBs from eating farmed salmon," said EWG Vice President for Research Jane Houlihan. "The federal Food and Drug Administration has shown no intention of taking action on this issue, so we are pursuing our case under California 's toxics right-to-know law."

Sources: The Center for Environmental Health and The Environmental Working Group

6. Forum and Scope
7. Decision Breadth
8. Legal Standing

Geographic Clusters

9. Geographic Locations: Alaska Salmon is the consistent source of wild-caught salmon. In 1998 Alaska Salmon was the first fish to be certified as a sustainable, well-managed fishery by the International Marine Stewardship Council. By having an MSC label on their products, customers know that it has come from an earth friendly fishery. With an absence of salmon farms in Alaska their status is at an all-time high. Alaska 's wild salmon industry earned $195 million last year and could be significantly more in demand should the allegations regarding farm-raised fish continue. While the size of the catch, 173 million in 2003, is not expected to rise much, the price could go up dramatically, providing a much needed infusion of capital into the industry.

a. Geographic Domain: North America

b. Geographic Site: Northern North America

c. Geographic Impact: USA

10. Sub-National Factors:
11. Geographic Impact:

Trade Clusters

Tafiffs:

When increased imports of fresh farmed salmon primarily from Norway drove prices down, a coalition of Atlantic salmon farmers filed a petition with the International Trade Commission and the Department of Commerce, charging that the Government of Norway was subsidizing its salmon farming industry and that Norway was selling farmed salmon at less than fair value. In June 1990, the International Trade Commission and the International Trade Administration determined that Norwegian salmon producers and exports had benefited from subsidy programs worth 2.43 percent for all salmon exports. In September, the Department of Commerce imposed a 2.96 percent antidumping duty on imported fresh and chilled farmed Atlantic salmon from Norway. The Department of Commerce later imposed company-specific dumping margins ranging from 15.65 to 31.81 percent. U.S. imports of Norwegian farmed salmon fell from 9,450 tons in 1990 to 1,320 tons in 1991, while imports of fresh salmon from all countries rose to 48,350 tons.

The gap in supply soon was filled by Canada and Chile . By 1996, Chile was the largest supplier of fresh Atlantic salmon to the United States, accounting for 42 percent of the market, while the share supplied by U.S. salmon farms had slipped below 20 percent. The same percentages continue today (see table below). In June 1997, the same group of U.S. salmon farms that petitioned the ITC and the Department of Commerce to impose duties on fresh Norwegian salmon imports petitioned to have duties imposed on Chilean imports. The Coalition for Fair Atlantic Salmon Trade claimed that Chilean salmon was being sold an average of 40 percent below market, and that the Chilean government had targeted 24 different subsidies to the industry.

The Washington Fish Growers Association believes that such actions violate free trade agreements between Chile and the United States. Tariffs against Chile do not currently exist, but have been proposed by the State of Alaska for flooding the market with inexpensive farmed salmon and driving the price down. State and federal laws require management of Alaska 's wild salmon according to sustained yield and ecosystem protection principals, resulting in higher production costs and lower harvests compared to Chilean fish farms. This makes it increasingly difficult for Alaska 's fishing industry to compete with imported farmed fish.

Senate Joint Resolution 15 urges the U.S. State Department and the U.S. Department of Commerce to impose import restrictions and increased import tariffs on Chilean farmed salmon in order to allow Alaskan fishermen to compete in the domestic market. The resolution passed with a vote of 38 - 1, and a notice of reconsideration was given.

Several antidumping investigations have been initiated against Chile. There appeared to be strong spikes of increased imports of Chilean farmed-salmon during the summer months, the only time of the year that fishermen can deliver fresh wild-caught salmon to market. That is considered to be an unfair advantage taken by these exporters. The International Trade Commission ruled that there was a reasonable indication that material injury was caused to U.S. producers of salmon. Subsequently, antidumping orders were placed on various Chilean companies. These cases are strong evidence that the U.S. salmon industry has been adversely affected by unrestricted imports of Chilean farmed salmon.

source: www.seaweb.org

Source: National Marine Fisheries Service Fisheries Statistics and Economics Division

Quotas:

The Norwegian Coalition government is to discontinue its system of controlling the salmon market through aquafeed quotas after 2004. The quota system is left over from the mid-1990's when Norway dominated salmon market production and used the system to regulate supply and demand, keeping prices high. Now that Norway's share of the salmon sector has been reduced to less than 50%, the government is to allow world market forces to prevail. Fisheries Minister Svein Ludvigsen has yet to announce the government's plans for an alternative means to control concessions as quotas are phased out.

The feed quota system for 2004 will be reduced and set at 852 tons per concession and quotas must be this year.

12. Type of Measure:
13. Direct vs. Indirect Impacts:
14. Relation of Trade Measure to Environmental Impact:

a. Directly Related to Product:
b. Indirectly Related to Product:
c. Not Related to Product:
d. Related to Process:

15. Trade Product Identification: Salmon

Labeling: U.S. Federal Law (FDA Code of Federal Regulations 73.35 [d][3] and 73.75 [d][4]) requires that farmed salmon and trout containing colorants must be labeled in the retail case and on the individual packages, with the words: "artificially colored" or "color added", in ¼ inch or larger letters. Farmed salmon contains color additives and consumers have a right to know that these fish contain colorants. Astaxanthin and canthaxanthin are colorants added to salmon feed; otherwise the flesh would be an unappetizing gray color. Canthaxanthin has been associated with eyesight problems and both colorants may cause reactions in chemically sensitive people

  16. Economic Data

Recent US Salmon Activity

Source: National Marine & Fishing Service, U.S. Dept. of Commerce

Customs value of recent U.S. imports for consumption

Pacific, Atlantic and Danube salmon, fresh or chilled, excluding fillets, other meat portions, livers and roes

2002 imports (thousand dollars)
$324,454.1

Salmonidae other than trout or Pacific, Atlantic & Danube salmon, fresh or chilled, excluding fillets, other meat portions, livers & roes

2002 imports (thousand dollars)
$291.6

Sockeye salmon (red salmon) (Orncorhynchus nerka), frozen, excluding fillets, other meat portion, livers and roes

2002 imports (thousand dollars)
$511.3

Pacific Salmon, other than sockeye, frozen, excluding fillets, other meat portions, livers and roes

2002 imports (thousand dollars)
$6,651.9

Atlantic salmon and Danube salmon, frozen, excluding livers and roes

2002 imports (thousand dollars)
$11,441.6

TOTAL AMOUNT - $343,350.5 (thousand dollars)

Import / export data by species:

ATLANTIC SALMON

Species Name : Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar).

1997 Imports: Fresh farmed 44,253.1mt, value $235,895,200; Fresh wild 525.1mt, value $2,406,000; Frozen (Danube) 3614.6mt, value $15,713,500.

1997 Exports: Fresh farmed 3275.6mt, value $17,690,800; Fresh wild 126.2mt, value $619,000; Frozen (Danube) 146.2mt, value $770,000.

  CHUM SALMON

Species Name: Chum Salmon (Oncorhynchus keta). Also called keta, chub, or dog salmon.

1997 Imports: Fresh 3244.0mt, value $4,300,200; Frozen 1294.0mt, value $6,967,000.

1997 Exports: Fresh 3877.4mt, value $4,908,500; frozen 10,544.5mt, value $26,437,600; Canned 851.5mt, value $2,250,700.

KING SALMON

Species Name: King Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). Frequently called Chinook or Spring Salmon, also Tyee, Winter or Quinnat (esp. Alaska and New Zealand).

1997 Imports: Fresh farmed - 4180.3mt, value $25,324,400; fresh wild - 236.4mt, value $1,053,500.

1997 Exports: Fresh 210.9mt, value $806,200; frozen 1701.2mt, value $10,000,300.

 SILVER SALMON

Species Name: Silver Salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Also called coho, medium red, or blush salmon.

1997 Imports: Fresh wild 20.3mt, value $89,700; farmed 548.9mt, value $2,341,800; Frozen 116.4mt, value $354,800.

1997 Exports: Fresh 321.2mt, value $1,660,600; frozen 3567.0mt, value $13,124,100.

SOCKEYE SALMON

Species Name: Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka), also called Red, or Blueback Salmon.

1997 Imports: Fresh 928.3mt, value $3,655,700; Frozen 169.1mt, value $743,100; Canned 42.7mt, value $364,200.

1997 Exports: Fresh 3,420.4mt, value $12,040,100; Frozen 45,574.8mt, $183,040,200; Canned 14,398.9mt, value $69,190,900.

Source: Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game

17. Impact of Trade Restriction: Application of the WTO Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (the SPS Agreement) allows WTO Members to enforce measures (such as importation and export bans and restrictions) necessary for the protection of human, animal and plant life or health. However, they must not be applied in a manner that would constitute arbitrary discrimination between Members where the same conditions prevail, or operate as a disguised restriction on international trade.

18. Industry Sector:

In 1975, Australia placed a ban on the importation of fresh, chilled or frozen Atlantic Salmon ( Salmo salar) on quarantine grounds. The ban remained in place following a risk assessment by Australia in 1996 in response to a complaint to the WTO that such a ruling violated the SPS Agreement (Articles 2, 3 and 5).

Australia banned imports of untreated fresh, chilled or frozen salmon from the United States and Canada, allegedly for phytosanitary reasons, even though a draft risk assessment found in 1995 that imports of eviscerated fish are not a basis for concern about the transmission of fish diseases to Australia 's fish stocks. In November 1995 the United States invoked WTO dispute settlement procedures and consulted with Australia on these restrictions. Meanwhile, Canada brought its own WTO case which the United States joined as a third party.

In its final ruling on the complaint, on 20 October 1998 , the Appellate Body of the WTO confirmed that, although Australia could set its high quarantine "no risk standard", it had violated the SPS Agreement. This was primarily because Australia allowed the importation of other fish and fish products such as live ornamental fish and frozen bait fish, even though the risk could be considered at least as high as that for salmon.

The Appellate Body also took into account other factors including that the 1995 Draft Report by Australia had recommended allowing conditional imports of salmon (a finding overturned in the final report); and Australia had no internal controls on the movement of salmon.

The Appellate Body also found Australia had not conducted a proper risk assessment of salmon imports, and was therefore also in violation of Article 2.2.

On November 25, 1998 , Australia advised it would be implementing the WTO decision, and entering into discussions with Canada within a reasonable time.

On February 18, 2000 , a WTO panel found that Australia 's measures affecting imports of Canadian salmon were inconsistent with Australia 's WTO obligations. This was the third time that the WTO had ruled against Australia 's restrictions, following Canada 's original complaint in 1997. Since then, Canadian and Australian officials have been negotiating the terms of a bilateral settlement. Australia implemented the terms of the settlement on June 1, 2000.

19. Exporters and Importers

Source: University of Alaska, Seafood Information Service

TOP PRODUCERS OF FARMED SALMON IN METRIC TONS, 2002

Total Fish Exports and Imports by country:

Source: COMTRADE database of the United Nations Statistics Division.

Environment Clusters

20. Environmental Problems:

From an environmental point of view, salmon farms account for a number of problems. Any open cage fish farming discharges untreated wastes directly into the sea. In addition, uneaten feed falls to the sea floor. Once there they generate bacteria which consume oxygen vital to shellfish and other bottom-dwelling creatures. In many countries, the aquaculture industry is the greatest source of human-created emissions of phosphorous and nitrogen. This is a major cause of toxic algal bloom, recently the subject of attention in both Scotland and the Mediterranean .

Farms typically put 50,000 to 90,000 fish in a pen 100 by 100 feet, and a single fish farm can grow 400,000 fish. Under governmental pressure, some farms have taken some steps to remedy the situation. By installing an underwater video camera to detect when fish quit feeding, overfeeding is beginning to be addressed.

With regard to PCB concentration, fish feed is the major part of the problem. Fish fed a diet rich in fish oil contribute greatly to the fish's PCB content. If farmed fish were fed plant-based oils such as canola, preliminary research suggests that the fish sold in supermarkets could continue to offer healthy Omega-3 fatty acids without the PCBs that were banned for their cancer-causing properties. Another promising option appears to be to feed fish poultry-based fats or grain-based meals such as soy. Not only are these food sources less polluted, they are half as expensive as fish oil, according to ES&T.

Another major problem is that farmed salmon escapees are having a detrimental effect on wild salmon populations. In addition to spreading parasites and 'genetic pollution' via interbreeding and hybridization, escapees have the capacity to spread infectious diseases to wild fish populations. For example, in Scotland , since May 2002, 3 out of 4 escapees (totaling 57,000 fish: equivalent to the entire wild salmon catch in Scotland ) came from farms infected with Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis. In Norway escapees are so prevalent that some rivers are comprised of up to 90% farm escapees. In Ireland, some river systems have been found to contain more farmed fish than wild fish. One idea has been to move the cages further offshore, but that would merely increase the number of escapees. The only real solution is closed containment systems.

Disease and parasites are also common in such areas. To control their spreading, farmers are increasingly reliant on chemicals. The use of synthetic pyrethroids, artificial colorants, antifoulants, antiparasitics, and other 'marine pollutants' warrants serious concern. The chemical cocktail used on farms jeopardizes not only the marine environment but also the safety of workers. In addition, the chemical 'treatments' used to kill sea lice (which are crustacean) have shellfish farmers concerned with their negative effects on other shellfish such as lobsters, crabs, mussels, oysters, and scallops. The major concern with regard to direct human consumption appears to be DDT and PCB's. Both of these, among other chemicals bioaccumulate via the fish feed, and have been found both under salmon cages and in the flesh of farmed salmon. Farmed fish have been shown to contain 5-10 times the PCB's of wild salmon.

The irony of it all is that fish farming was initially promoted as a way to expand the fish supply and help to feed more people. The reality however, is that with the primary feed in farms being fish meal and fish oil, the world is losing ground in fish supply. Over three tons of wild fish (a healthy alternative) are required to produce one ton of farmed salmon, leading to a pronounced net loss of resources. Incredibly, aquaculture is predicted to use up to 90% of the worlds' fish oil by 2010.

The pace of aquaculture threatens not only the marine environment but also consumer safety. At risk is the eventual extinction of wild species, as well as the health of the general public.

Sources: The Environmental Working Group; Kenneth Weiss, The Los Angeles Times, 12/9/02; Dan Staniford, "Aquaculture in the European Union: Present Situation and Future Prospects"

Farmed Salmon diet and chemicals:

Below is a sample diet from a salmon farm:

    NUTRIENTS MINERALS - CHEMICALS

    White fish   -  Flesh dye (Canthaxanthin)
    Blood meal  - Magnesium sulphate
    Hydrolised feathers  -  Iron oxide
    Meat bone meal  -  Zinc sulphate
    Cane molasses  -  Potassium iodide
    Fish oils  -  Sodium carbonate
    Soya  -  Zinc oxide
    Antioxidants  -   Di-calcium phosphate
    Yeast  -  Copper carbonate
    Herring offal  -  Cobalt sulphate
    Saithe offal  -  Cobalt carbonate
    Binders (cellulose, alginate)  -  Optional; antibiotics

Source: The Salmon Farm Monitor

DISEASES AND CHEMICALS

Salmon farms are a breeding groud for sea lice that only attack salmon and trout, wild or farmed. To fight such parasites and diseases, farmed fish have various chemicals added to their food. Many of these chemical are quite dangerous, both to humans and the environment. They include the following:

Di-chlorvos: Capable of killing lobster and shellfish 1/1000 the concentration used in salmon farming. Listed as one of the EU's most dangerous compounds for aquatic environments, it was previously banned. It was eventually licensed by the EU because farmers claimed no alternative existed. In 2002 di-chlorvos was outlawed as cancer causing. A salmon-farm worker is currently claiming in the Dublin (Scotland) High Court that di-chlorvos caused his testicular cancer.

Malachite Green: It was outlawed in 1990 by US Federal Authorities as cancer causing. Although banned in the EU since June 2002, the compound is still being detected in Scottish farmed salmon. The EU threatens legal action if salmon farmers continue to use it.

Ivermectin: It's long-lasting capacity to destroy many non-target marine species led its manufacturers to specifically recommend it not be used in aquatic environments. This advice has been routinely ignored resulting in it being regularly found in farmed salmon.

Cypermethrin, is both popular and cheap. It is capable of destroying all insect life in 12 kilometers of river, and can eradicate similarly structured marine species inhabiting salmon farming waters.

Teflubenzuron: Destroys the hard skin of virtually all known insects, and as a result threatens most aquatic molluscs. The Scottish Environmental Protection Agency warned; "Being very long-lived¸ Teflubenzuron endangers non-target species and may re-enter the food-chain via shellfish." Additionally, it is not biodegradable in seawater, so toxic wastes under farms may release Teflubenzuron into the sea for years to come.

Source: The Salmon Farm Monitor

21. Name, Type, and diversity of species

There are 5 types of Pacific Salmon with appear on both sides of the ocean.

All five are present in the Alaska area:

* Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) a.k.a. king salmon

Geography: Highly migratory. Northern Japan , Kotzebue Sound (Bering Sea) and southern California.

* Chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) a.k.a. dog salmon

Geography: Southern California to Mackenzie River in the Arctic, as far south as Honshu, Japan.

* Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) a.k.a. silver salmon

Geography: Baja Peninsula to the Bering Sea and south to Japan and Korea. Also farmed in Washington, British Columbia and Chile.

* Pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) a.k.a. humpback salmon

Geography: Northern California to the Mackenzie River, Canada, and to the west from the Lena River in Siberia to Korea.

* Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) a.k.a. red salmon

Geography: North-central California to Bering Sea, south to Hokkaido, Japan .

Two species of Pacific Salmon occur only in Asia :

* masu salmon ( Oncorhynchus masou ) a.k.a. yamame
* amago salmon ( Oncorhynchus rhodurus ) a.k.a. biwamasu

There is only one type of Atlantic salmon , Salmo salar

Geography: The majority of commercial Atlantic salmon are farmed. Major producers include the U.S., Chile, Norway, Canada, Ireland & the U.K., and Iceland.

22. Resource Impact and Effect:
23. Urgency and Lifetime:

24. Substitutes: Organic Salmon?

Currently there are no standards in the US for regulating or labeling organic salmon. In Europe such regulations have been in place for the past five years. However, there is no evidence to date that shows the contaminant level of organic salmon to be lower than conventionally farmed salmon. For salmon to be labeled organic, the following criteria must be in place:

• The number of salmon per pen is half that of conventional farms
  
• Salmon are fed fish meal containing the trimmings of fish fit for human consumption rather than industrial fish meal. The amount of fish oil is lower than in conventional fish meal, which is a suspected source of cancer-causing contaminants

• The use of pesticides to treat sea lice is strongly resricted

• The synthetic pigment (canthaxanthin) is prohibited

• All organic operations are inspected once a year

  Source: Renee Schettler, The Washington Post, 4/7/04
  

Other Factors

25. Culture

Salmon has been a major part of native american culture for years. It is reflected in their work, diet, and art. The following is an accurate description of what many are facing today.

On Canada 's Pacific coast, the Heiltsuk and Nuxalk Indian tribes have lived for generations as salmon fishermen, both for subsistence and trade. It is a dominant part of their culture. However, this area is also a prime location for salmon farms, raising the concern of sustainability for the tribes. A large facility is being built by Pan Fish of Norway, the world's second-largest aquaculture company. If finished, it will produce 10 million young Atlantic salmon a year to supply farms proposed for much of the province's central coast.

The environmental impact and the manner in which the fish are raised are at the heart of the issue. "We are struggling to save a way of life", Heiltsuk chief Edwin Newman said. "We do not want fish farms on the central coast". Most of the aboriginal peoples in Canada have never ceded the rights to their land. They see the government-backed expansion of fish farms as a violation of their territorial rights. A lawsuit is pending against Omega Salmon Group, Pan Fish's Canadian Subsidiary. After a temporary halt in the projects' construction, Omega's project manager claimed that they were fully committed to a positive and transparent dialogue with the tribes. However, construction has resumed with a finish date of this summer - with no progress in talks.

Heiltsuk chief Harvey Humchitt lamented, "We rely on our salmon, we rely on all the resources from the ocean, and we see the Atlantics (farm-raised salmon) as a threat to all those natural resources that live in the ocean."

At issue are many environmental factors. Many fish farms have been stricken by diseases which can spread between fish. Parasites such as sea lice, which are common to farms, are also easily spread to wild fish. Other concerns involve the escape of farm fish into the wild, whereby they could displace wild salmon, in all their genetic diversity. The industry and its critics also argue over the health implications of fish farms' use of antibiotics, pesticides, and artificial coloring. A neighboring tribe to the north, the Kitasoo, had trouble when they allowed a salmon farm to be built in their area. A viral disease outbreak last year forced that farm to kill all its salmon and may have spread the virus to the wild salmon.

With their livelihood at stake, the tribes will continue their fight against all odds to defend their way of life. "Everyone needs jobs", Phillip Hogan of the Heiltsuk said, in light of the 85% unemployment currently facing the area. "But this threatens the economy we already have."

Source: Organic Consumers Association

26. Trans-Boundary Issues:
27. Rights:

28. Relevant Literature:

www.thealaskajournal.com - A history of the Alaska fishing industry.

www.aquatas.com - Salmon views from Tasmania.

www.endlessrealms.com - Pro salmon farm viewpoints from Scotland.

www.organicconsumers.com - Wild salmon and all other organic foods.