Geographic Indications and International Trade (GIANT)

Number 757, 2004
by Jinseon Ahn

NYAMA CHOMA

African BBQ

General Information
Legal Cluster
Bio-Geographic Cluster
Trade Cluster
Environment Cluster
Other Clusters

Hot

Elephant Trumpeting

I. Identification

1. The Issue

Kenya, a leader of East Africa, is a renowned country for wildlife in national parks as well as a peculiar place for "Nyama Choma" in the world. "Nyama Choma" means "roasted beef and goat meat" in Swahili and seems like general barbecue. However, the recent African BBQ has an open secret in ingredient and has gained a reputation for a African cultural cuisine. It is cooking with wildlife meats - ostrich, giraffe, crocodile, and zebra. As the world tourism is growing rapidly, the African BBQ restaurants are spread from Kenya to neighboring countries and contributed to enhance tourism which is the second main industry in Kenya. After spending time with wildlife in national parks, many visitors could enjoy tasting grilled meats at restaurants. Notwithstanding increasing tourism, controversial issues have lasted between preservation and utilization of wildlife and territory both wildlife and humans. Governments including Africa countries introduced the proposals to ban and amend international wildlife trade rules and protect endangered special wild fauna and flora at UN conference in Bangkok.[1] Conservation of natural recourses is an indispensable policy, but perhaps the "African BBQ" could play an important role to harmonize and improve tourism in Kenya.

2. Description

A. Impact on Culture

What is "Nyama Choma"?

"Nyama Choma" in Swahili means the roasted red meats over fired charcoal for a long time, which Massai tribe was used to eat grilled flesh or spareribs of cows and goats. The current "Nyama Choma" are quite different from original meats. The most important thing is the diversification of meats from livestock to wildlife- from beef and goats to ostrich, giraffe, crocodile, and zebra meats. In addition, the traditional recipe for "Nyama Choma" has been developed. Compared with no flavoring traditional BBQ, new recipe says that red meats mixed the lemon juice, garlic, and the spices put in a container during one hour, and roast them with coal or in the very hot furnace.[2]

The origin of "Nyama Choma" traced back to Massai's history. In the late first millennium AD, Massai eating BBQ immigrated to Massai Mara from North Africa to East. The nomadic people wandered with a herd of cows to look forward to grass and ground in lands. Otherwise, there were agricultural tribes bordered on Massai land - Kikuyu and Luo tribes to the north, and Chagga and Abugasi to the south and southwest.[3] The farming tribes settled in lands to cultivate maize and corns. Compared with stable tribes, the cows were more important asset to nomadic tribes because they granted people a plenty of milk, blood, meats, skin, bones and the last excretion. Although Massai have lived together wildlife in Massai Land, they have faced against animals' threaten to rescue people, livestock, and land.

In April 2004 the group of Massai warriors visited Arizona cowboys to share their experience about the conservation and economic benefits in open range lands in Kenya and Tanzania. It was a response of Arizona cowboys' visit to Kenya in October 2002. The ranchers and the Massai exchanged their ideas for resistance against government's pressure to build up fences in lands and to threat to wildlife. Additionally both Massai and cowboys in USA talked their life story over a meal of "Nyama Choma" having in Kenya and recognized their own culture because they have something in common with healthy cattle, roasted meat and the using open plains.[4]

In present "Nyama Choma" is a representative of African taste, and natural resources as well as a leader of new developed culture. The roasted meats jumped into the new African food culture, which has maintained as a renowned cousin in the world. With unique ingredients and recipe, African BBQ is distinguished from cuisine in the world.

B. Impact on Tourism

Lion Tourism is the second largest industry related with wildlife in Kenya. The impact on tourism reaches entirely national economy in Kenya and regional development. According to Investment Promotion Center in Kenya, tourism earnings has increased from 17,509 in 1998 to 21,734 in 2002.[5] The impact in economy affect related industries like Agricultural, Textiles, Beverage, Transport and Entertainment. Moreover, all sectors are strongly connected with extending national profit. The growing tourism could create new employment, lure investment from foreign companies, and besides, develop infrastructure.

There is a good model to suggest how Kenya can improve and sustain tourism. The "Safari" tour in Swahili means to view wild animals in the grand and wild plain which is registered on dictionary as a global word. Taking special safari car visitors are delightful to see alive animals outside television. In present "Safari" tour markets break a record through the remarkable growth every year. Along good roads, hotels with comfortable facilities should be built up and employed new workers. If the diversified and sustained programs were offered cooperated with government, and organization, tourists could take more abundant chances to chose what they really want to do in natural field.

Historically African countries were plundered a lot of wildlife by illegal hunting under the reign of European Countries in the 19 century. Hunting without license regarded as illegal behavior which was conservation of animals by British.[6] The conservation in colonial stream has influenced to recent policy in Kenya. As long as visitors are increasing, the preservation of wildlife and environment could be indispensable policy. Nevertheless, the wildlife has been declining, and human has been attacked by animals. In Africa there are continuous conflicts between conservation and utilization of wildlife and between animals and humans territory.

Conflict of Conservation and Utilization of Wildlife

Kenyan Government and Kenya Wildlife Service have tried to promote tourism in Kenya under the protection policy. There are restricted laws and policies regulating to wildlife management to hunt and use wildlife in national parks. Unfortunately the conservation policies for animals have failed to revive tourism in Kenya. The reasons are that a few guards can hardly manage wide national parks with outdated facilities and they can't prevent illegal hunting and killing endangered wildlife like elephant, lions and rhino.

Through the new article of East African Standard in May 25 2004, Kenyan the Permanent government has strongly addressed to promote the wildlife conservation and management policy. Mrs. Arungah, Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources and Wildlife said, "We cannot allow back the situation of the 1970s and 1980s when elephants, rhinos and other animals were reduced to a point of near extinction in the country."[7]

Despite government's statement , the utilization of wildlife brings up as an alternative which is cooperated with economic industry. People in Eastern and Southern Africa regarded the bush or wildlife meats as edible meats. The reason is they are struggling against hugger in drought and famine, so they can't take afford to buy and consider the decline of wildlife. Moreover, the price of wild meat is lower than livestock. The price of domestic meats are USD1.17 per kg, but game meats are selling less than USD 0.58 per kg as a official policy in order to overcome human malnutrition. According to the TRAFFIC report "Food For Thought : The Utilization of Wild Meat in Eastern and Southern Africa" documents, the utilization of meats in the region has the economic value to certain areas, and the impact on protected areas and individual species valued in the trade. Through two-year review on trade and utilization of wild meat, there are seven east and southern African countries utilizing meats - Botswana, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.[8]

The ranching or farming places of wild animals are open legally and allow countries to trade in the markets in order to rise their economy. The residents could buy meats for the simply local consumption and company could be permitted to trade environment friendly meats for "Nyama Choma" after the special contract between company and government. As the result, the new cuisine leads the direct and indirect utilization of wildlife to expand the second main industry in Kenya.

Conflict of Wildlife's and Humans Territory

There are 26 national parks in Kenya where wildlife is living in grand grass. Even thought "Safari" is delightful journey, Kenya has lost some 44% of mammal fauna for over 17 years and the number of wildlife has been declining rapidly.[9] Someone think that the expanding of human and livestock population could influence displacement of wildlife, but others claim that preserving wildlife could attract human territories.

People are facing on difficulties to preserve their lives and areas from wildlife's attack. In rural areas the wild animals are trampling corps and grains, and eating all grass for cattle. Most of all they are killing or injuring villagers. If people tried to kill wildlife, they should violate governmental conservation rules, which the killing or hunting wild animals is not allowed without licenses. When hungry lions killed 54 sheep in the Voi region in June 2002, a member of parliament insisted to mobilize villages to kill one elephant for compensation. However, it wasn't successful because the rule was not permitted. Until now over 15 people are killed by wildlife every year, and the record tells 55 people were killed in 1992.[10]

Unfortunately all strategies are focusing on survive wildlife. There is few consideration for people to suffer from exacerbating animals' threatens. As conflicts between human and animals are increasing , Kenya World Service (KWS) has planned for a compensation program in which people can get revenue sharing and financial aid when they were damaged by wildlife. Finally KWS addressed elephants are the most dangerous animals because 75% of death toll was caused by elephants' attack. The government support KSH 30,000 as compensation for a death, and may take more than 10 years to complete compensation.[11]

To make matters worse, 11 national parks actually earned revenues and only 8 parks could be self-sufficient.[12] Under the economical difficulties, it is a question that only compensation policy is an alternative to preserve wildlife, human and territory. To implement the policy, the fund raising through tourism is considered. It needs multinational cooperation with government, non-government organization, business company and international organization, and various tour program catching on visitors. The African BBQ restaurants could be significant economic cooperators to bring up tourism.

C. Impact on Ecotourism

The World Bank offered financial aid to the 15 wildlife-related projects in Sub-Saharan Africa from 1970 to 1992, and the amount of fund was the USD 368 million or about 1 % of the total lending. Especially the projects implemented in Kenya and neighbor countries in East Africa. Even though they had tried to research regions and published papers " The Economics of Wildlife: Case Studies from Ghana, Kenya,Namibia and Zimbabwe", the plans were failed to get good results. The research showed there are 4 major themes "(i) the financial and economic viability of wildlife : (ii) the significance of wildlife as meat or "bush meat"; (iii) policy implications and (iv) environmental impact."[13]

As efforts turned out a failure, the meaning of tourism was reconsidered in 4 main themes. Ecotourism, which is a relatively new concept, entered into world tourism. The definition of International Ecotourism Society (TIES) is that Ecotourism means "responsible travel to natural areas which conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of local people".[14] Unfortunately African countries can hardly to assimilate new meaning, so there is few study between economy and wildlife's utilization in Kenya.

Yet, Ecotourism is a member of globalized world to create jobs and to enhance the conservation of wildlife and ecosystem, and to multiply tourists markets. In recent years, Kenyan government realized the necessity to harmonize tourism activities. In the economical point of view, more and more people are visiting to national parks, more and more income of tourism is growing. The enhanced gross national income could be fundamental to develop Kenya. The Kenya Wildlife Service has been actively involved in the cooperated sensitization with wildlife to get involved in its management.[15] However, the using wild meats is much more positive in ranchers of cattle or livestock than farmers. Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) estimated 500 tons of wildlife meats are exporting actually.[16] The ranching and farming cattle and wildlife are more effective solution in order to preserve lands and make a profit. It is expected to have impacted both the environment and local culture.

African BBQ - "Nyama Choma" could be a representative of Ecotourism. All game meats for BBQ could be produced legally through ranching, farming and all animals in farms are only environmentally friendly. Preventing from wildlife trade the CITES are progressing some program like TRAFFIC in the world. The purpose of TRAFFIC program is to ensure that wildlife trade does not result in the endangerment of any wild animal and plant species. In the list of priority species of TRAFFIC, the endangered animals are Elephants, Tigers, Tibetan Antelope, Sharks, Marine Turtles, Rhinos, Sturgeon, Freshwater turtles, Mahogany, and Agarwood.[17] Otherwise, the main meats for African BBQ wouldn't be controversial because animals are growing in ranches or farms.

The "Nyama Choma" could introduce culture to visitors through direct experience. Through a BBQ course of integrated tour programs, visitors are enjoying game meats in the field or in the restaurants. Plenty of traditional African woodcarvings in the hall could make visitors feel in African typical villages. At sunset they could be aware of what is the real African culture watching wildlife, hearing roar of lion, and tasting BBQ. They could see new image of African countries and invest their money to make good memories in Africa.

The World Restaurant of "Nyama Choma"

! The noted product "African BBQ" is playing an important role in tourism in Kenya. If people were delightful to find out the lively creatures in the vast parks, they could have another memorable delight in the renowned food. As a successful and beautiful spot, "Carnivore" located in Nairobi, Kenya is famous and popular for "Nyama Choma" in the world. It has elected as one of the world's 50 best restaurants and one of two restaurants in Africa. A panel of 71 renowned food critics, restaurants and chefs has approved it as featured restaurant. [18]

Since "Carnivore" started business as a subsidiary of Tamarind Group in 1980, it has a reputation for a multitude of celebrities and been one of Kenya's greatest exports and enhanced the country's reputation as a tourist destination. Tamarind Group has two "Carnivore"restaurants in Nairobi, Kenya and in Johannesburg including seafood restaurant in Mombasa and Tamambo, and Dhow.[19]

Running African music in "Carnivore", all guests are enjoying the special roasted game meats. All types of meats are grilled on traditional Massai swords over a huge charcoal pit at the entrance of the restaurant. One of interesting things is waiters who are carrying a sword and slice a piece of meats on the plate in front of visitors.

The other thing is that they persuade people to have more meats until they change a sign from "serving meats" to "stop serving meats". The two flags as a sign lay on the table, but people who are enjoying food can forget easily to switch them. Although people say they don't want any more meat, waters are serving BBQ to them steadily until sign is changed.

During dinner they are talking about what is the best taste which reminds them of what they saw in national park in safari tour. They share the special experience to eat zebra, giraffe, impala, wildebeest, crocodile and other game meats at the unique restaurant. More restaurants for "Nyama Choma" are built up in National Parks in Kenya and many neighboring countries, more visitors take opportunity to travel to Kenya.

3. Related Cases

	Angola's Depleted Fish Stocks Case Issue Botswana Cattle Ranches and Trade Charcoal Charcoal Production in the Democratic Republic of Congo Chimpanzees: The Value of Research versus Endangerment Elephant and rhino poaching in Zambia (ZAMBIA Case) Jaguar Hunting and Trade Kenya Tourism and Elephants (KENYA Case) Lion


Mesquite Trade and Tex-Mex Food (Mesquite) Nile Crocodile Trade Nile Perch, Trade and Environment Ostrich Farming (Ostrich) Quetzal Sea Ballast and Zebra Mussels (BALLAST) Serengeti Lions and Domestic Dogs (AFRDOG Case) The Resplendent Uganda, Tourism and Environment		HUMAN
		*WILDLIFE*

4. Author and Date:

Jin Seon Ahn (July, 2004)

II. Legal Clusters

5. Discourse and Status: Disagree and Allegation

The preliminary review on the UN CITES was held in order to prepare major conference in Bangkok, Thailand from 2 to 14 October, 2004. In the conference 50 governments introduce the proposal for amending international wildlife trade rules, but the results are not cleared.[20] CITES are implementing programs to protect endangered animals.

6. Forum and Scope: Kenya and Unilateral

7. Decision Breadth: 1

8. Legal Standing: Law

III. Geographic Clusters

9. Geographic Locations

a. Geographic Domain: Africa

b. Geographic Site: East Africa

c. Geographic Impact: Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia and Sudan

The Republic of Kenya straddles the equator and covers the area of some 582,646 sq. km which are approximately six times of South Korea's area and 2.7 times of Korean peninsula's. It's bounded that in the north by the arid bush lands and deserts of Ethiopia and Sudan, to the east by Somalia and the Indian Ocean, to the southwest by Uganda and Tanzania. The migrating scene of groups of Buffalo are spectacular in Amboseli national park form Kenya to Tanzania .The weather is an influencing factor to popular seasons in tourism.

10. Sub-National Factors: Yes

11. Type of Habitat: Temperate

It might be very hot and humid because of the location passed by equator. There is a big different temperature between the day and the night but temperature, rainfall and humidity spread throughout the year. From March to May dry and rainy seasons sustain usually. As the record the maximum precipitation goes to 200 mm in April, but the lowest raining seasons keep from October to December.

The popular seasons for journey are almost 4 months - December, January, July and August. In vast wildness the animals show their own attractive and natural daily life and the beautiful shores are supported the best palaces for resting.

IV. Trade Clusters

12. Type of Measure: Intellectual property

13. Direct v. Indirect Impacts: Yes

14. Relation of Trade Measure to Environmental Impact

a. Directly Related to Product: Yes, Food

b. Indirectly Related to Product: Yes, Tourism

c. Not Related to Product: No

d. Related to Process: Yes, Culture

15. Trade Product Identification : Wildlife excluding endangered animals

16. Economic Data

Economic Status of Kenya

According to US Commercial Service, the GDP growth rate in Kenya is 1.1 % in 2002 compared with 0.8% in 2001.(Table 1) Agriculture as main industry accounts for 24% of the GDP and 75% of the population are working in agriculture. Manufacturing accounts for 13%, and tourism accounts for 12% of GDP in 2002.[21]

Table 1. Domestic Economy (In USD millions unless otherwise specified)

	2000	2001	2002	2003(p)
GDP at market prices	10,446	11,234	12,313	13,333
GDP growth rate (percent)	-0.3%	0.8%	1.1%	2.3%
GDP per capita (in USD)	27	267	**239	306
Government spending (percent of GDP)	22.6	27.8	26.3	21.9
Inflation (percent)	6.2	5.8	2.0	5.0
Unemployment (percent)	25	25	*28.2	*28.2
Foreign exchange reserves	897	1,459	1,614	N/A
Average exchange rate (KSH/USD)	76.2	78.6	78.7	78.0
Debt service ration	3.8	3.4	3.0	N/A

(p) Projected

* Figures grossly underestimated. N/A Not Available

** The figure from the economic recovery for Wealth Creation and Employment 2003 - 2007 is more realistic than the Central Bank estimate of USD305.

Source : U.S. Commercial Service

Tourism Status of Kenya

Investment Promotion Center addressed the total rate of visitors arrival and departure rose by 2.3% and 0.8% in 2002, and average length of stay by the visitors improved marginally from 8.4 days to 8.5 days in 2002. Earnings fell from KSh 24.3 billion in 2001 to KSh 21.7 billion in 2002.(Table 2,3) According to the purpose of visit, the ratios account for holiday (73%), transit (16%), business (8%), and others (3%).

Table 2. Visitors Arrivals By Purpose of Visit, 1998 - 2002 ('000s)

Purpose	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002*
Holiday	686.9	746.9	778.2	728.8	732.6
Business	86.8	94.4	98.3	92.1	86.6
Transit	101.9	107.4	138.5	152.6	163.3
Others	18.7	20.6	21.5	20.1	19.0
Total	894.3	969.3	1036.5	993.6	1,001.3

Table 3. Visitors Departure By Purpose of Visit, 1998 - 2002 ('000s)

Purpose	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002*
Holiday	672.9	746.5	772.2	742	744.6
Business	85	93.7	97	93.2	93.4
Transit	91.9	106.4	103.5	134.1	153.6
Others	18.3	21.8	22.5	21.6	21.7
Total	868.1	968.4	995.2	990.9	1,013.4

* Provisional

Source : Central Bureau of Statistics

Tourism Prospect in Kenya

According to the World Tourism Organization (WTO), more than 663 million international travelers in 1999 and they might spend USD453 billion dollars to their travels. Tourists arrivals are expected to increase by average 4.1% a year for 20 years, and the number of travelers are up to 1.6 million in 2020. In 1998 WTO addressed that the ratio of Ecotourism and all nature-related tourism is 20% of total international travel. (Table 4)

The new trial to Ecotourism is focusing that data can get from general tourism statistics. For example, the indicator of wildlife-related tourist means persons who really like to travel just in nature compared with general tourists. Through Fillion's research, 40-60% of all international tourists are nature tourists and that 20-40% are wildlife-related tourists. In 1995 Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) estimated that wildlife occupy 80% tourist market. [22]

In the circumstance of new tourism trend, Kenya can be the destination for travelers and improve tourism. Especially it is a good sign to promote tourism that the travelers who love nature are getting more and more. The place for wild animals in Kenya and neighbors seize an opportunity to develop national economy with immaterial property - natural resources from heaven and specialized experience from earth.

Table 4. Ecotourism Statistical Fact Sheet

Total International Tourism Arrivals	Natural Tourists	Wildlife-related Tourists
1988 - 393 million	157-236 million	79-157 million
1994 - 528.4 million	211-317 million	106-211 million

Total International Economic Impact	Natural Tourists	Wildlife-related Tourists
1988 - USD388 billion	USD93-223 billion	USD47-155 billion
1994 - USD416 billion	USD166-250 billion	USD83-166 billion

* Total International Direct Economic Impact = money spent on travel by tourists traveling abroad.

Source : Ecotourism Statistical Fact Sheet

17. Impact of Trade Restriction: Low

18. Industry Sector: Food and Tourism

19. Exporters and Importers: Kenya and Many

V. Environment Clusters

20. Environmental Problem Type: Culture

21. Name, Type, and Diversity of Species

Name: African BBQ - Nyama Choma

Type: Wildlife meats

Diversity: Wildlife excluding endangered animals

22. Resource Impact and Effect: Low and Product

23. Urgency and Lifetime: Low and 10-20 years

24. Substitutes: Like Products

VI. Other Factors

25. Culture: Yes

Even though countries are developed and modernized rather than we expected, the only spot " Massai Land" remains of ancient world. Since the Massai tribe immigrated to land, they have lived with wildlife keeping their tradition. In Massai land the past and present culture exist simultaneously. Through war history between people and animals, Massai has created their history. On a vast plain people has struggled with animals like their ancestors to survive and protect their land and cattle.

The herd of cows is the most valuable for Massai tribe because cows offer people milk, meat, skin, bone, and even excretion. Especially the cow's excretion is one of main stuff to build up houses and make a fire. Fresh milk with blood is a nutritious food. The leather is good material for Massai's typical accessories and bones are the best material for worriers' weapon. If Massai tribe met fierce animals like lion in the land, they could catch them with weapon made with cow bone.

Most of all the typical food is beefs and goats roasted on charcoal and becomes the origin of African BBQ "Nyama Choma". In present the traditional food has developed main meats from livestock to wild animal. Meats are too unique to have for dinner in any other place except Africa. As the African BBQ is earning the reputation for a world food, cuisine from Massai culture is performing duties to introduce African culture from natural resources, and is opening new era of African food culture.

26. Trans-Boundary Issues: No

27. Rights: No

28. Relevant Literature

1. Baskin, Y., There's a new wildlife policy in Kenya:use it or lose it

2. Carnivore Voted One of World's Best Restaurants

3. Carnivore

4. Central Bureau of Statistics

5. Chesseman, T., Conservation and the Maasai in Kenya.-Tradeoff or lost mutualism?

6. Data Sheet", USAID Mission

7. Dining

8. Ecotourism Statistical Fact Sheet

9. Hennake, C., Dining Out