Report Finding (B):<\/strong>\u00a0 \u201cThe turn to the new technologies is not solely important because it is innovative, but also because it will be a means to address a number of socio-economic issues.\u00a0 This includes the need to resolve a number of social problems and to adjust to the increases in the costs of education.\u201d<\/p>\nThese two findings have very similar conclusions, but they differ in one important way.\u00a0 The first one is a finding from a private research group report in 2014 (Griffiths, et al., 2014, p. 7).\u00a0 The second is a summary found in a National Academy of Engineering study in 1969 (National Academy of Engineering, 1969, p. 1).<\/p>\n
This article argues that these two differing findings at differing points in time should not be surprising.\u00a0 Over many technological periods there is interplay between key social needs and educational tools that mean to optimize certain teaching and learning goals.\u00a0 Challenges and opportunities are trade-offs that each technology brings in re-aligning the use of optimal tools.\u00a0 In fact, as technology has become more powerful, teaching principles grow ever more important because they require the fusion of disparate learning types.<\/p>\n
This fused context can be called teachnology<\/em>, or the melding of a technology with a learning apparatus.\u00a0 It is a process that configures differently according to both time period and particular technology. \u00a0It reflects the state of learning and the technology behind it, along with the development of appropriate educational systems.<\/p>\nThe research examines teachnology<\/em> through four differing technological periods of distance education.\u00a0 The constellation of concerns in each period however is not ideographic.\u00a0 Some concerns are more prominent in certain periods while some are less important.\u00a0 Such areas of learning reflect the type of technology and how to adapt given a certain learning environment.\u00a0 Pedagogical solutions evolve with each new technology and adaption is a constant response.<\/p>\nThe article has three parts. \u00a0First<\/u>, it offers a theoretical lens from which to evaluate and understand the evolution of teachnology<\/em>.\u00a0 Second<\/u>, it breaks down distance learning into four identifiable periods and compares them. \u00a0Third<\/u>, it looks ahead to new technologies and the ways education and teaching will need to adapt.<\/p>\n\n- Research Overview<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
What is distance education?\u00a0 It generally refers to learning outside of a traditional face-to-face classroom.\u00a0 Beyond this simple context, the concept is widely misunderstood.\u00a0 Merriam-Webster\u2019s Dictionary says that it is \u201ceducation that takes place via electronic media linking instructors and students who are not together in a classroom (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2014).\u201d\u00a0 This definition is debatable and probably wrong.<\/p>\n
Correspondence courses were clearly instances of distance learning and involved no electronics.\u00a0 So too were radio and television courses.\u00a0 A technologically neutral definition to describe distance education (or sometimes known as distance learning) is probably more accurate and there are several examples to choose from.<\/p>\n
*\u00a0 Anderson and Dron<\/em>: \u201cdistance education is learning that is technologically mediated by place and time\u201d (Anderson<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0Dron, 2011)<\/strong>.<\/p>\n*\u00a0 Greenberg<\/em>: \u201ca planned teaching\/learning experience that uses a wide spectrum of technologies to reach learners at a distance and is designed to encourage learner interaction and certification of learning\u201d (Greenberg 1988, p. 741).<\/p>\n*\u00a0 Teaster and Blieszner<\/em>: \u201cthe term distance learning has been applied to many instructional methods: however, its primary distinction is that the teacher and the learner are separate in space and possibly time\u201d (Teaster and Blieszner, 1999, p. 741).<\/p>\nDistance education is an intellectual mediation between pedagogical methods and technological tools.\u00a0 It is not a new invention.\u00a0 The pedagogy of how people learn is as old as people.\u00a0 Schools and teachers are ancient institutions.\u00a0 Rather, distance learning is a changing medium and has undergone changes over time.<\/p>\n
While the challenges are quite familiar so are the inadequacies of distance education, no matter the technology.\u00a0 These issues include (1) student feelings of depersonalization, (2) technology system failures, (3) faculty training shortcomings, (4) limited ability to serve differing communities, and (5) realizing cost gains.\u00a0 This point of view has the perspective that the teaching essentials remain fundamental, though the technological means of delivery may shift over time.\u00a0 The result is a sort of optimal operating level that attempts to balance these concerns.<\/p>\n
Communications systems help define distance education concepts (Dron and Anderson, 2009). \u00a0In an attempt to define a middle ground between either technological or pedagogical determinism, some researchers see the two intertwined in a dance: the technology sets the beat and creates the music, while the pedagogy defines the moves (Dron and Anderson, 2009). \u00a0In this perspective, the two pieces are thought of as one basic configuration.<\/p>\n
Some technologies may more easily embrace pedagogy, compared to others, thereby hardening the learning structure.\u00a0 It is at that point the learning type becomes far more influential in a learning design.\u00a0 Technology becomes the leaders of the dance rather than the partners. \u00a0This imbalance occurs more often in the hard sciences, for example, in computational research where the learning is more task-driven than discursive oriented.<\/p>\n
The availability of technologies to support different constructs of learning strongly influences the kinds of models that develop.\u00a0 If there were no means of two-way communication, for example, it would prevent the development of a pedagogy that exploited dialogue and conversation.\u00a0 On the other hand, the use of a one-way communication tool would encourage the development of a pedagogy that allowed for self-containment in course content.<\/p>\n
There are two primary aspects of distance education to consider in looking at its role through time.\u00a0 First<\/em>, technologies do create unique challenges in determining optimal pedagogical tools to employ for instruction.\u00a0 Each period adds an additional mode of technological discourse that can be both beneficial and detrimental.\u00a0 Second<\/em>, there are nonetheless clear issues of pedagogy that consistently arise in use of distance education versus face-to-face (f2f) environments, as noted earlier.<\/p>\n\n- Periods of Distance Education<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Several researchers identify periods of distance education, including D. R. Garrison, Terry Anderson\u00a0and\u00a0Jon Dron, and Denise Casey.\u00a0 The three perspectives are mostly similar but with some significant differences in the number and types of periods (see Table 1).<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Table 1
\nTechnological Periods in Distance Education<\/p>\n
\n\n\n| Period<\/td>\n | Garrison<\/td>\n | Anderson & Dron<\/td>\n | Casey<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n |
\n| 1<\/td>\n | Postal<\/td>\n | Correspondence and Broadcast<\/td>\n | Post Office<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n |
\n| 2<\/td>\n | Multi-Media<\/td>\n | Early Internet<\/td>\n | Radio<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n |
\n| 3<\/td>\n | Interactive Databases<\/td>\n | Web Network<\/td>\n | Television<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n |
\n| 4<\/td>\n | na<\/td>\n | na<\/td>\n | Computer and Communication<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n <\/p>\n \n- R. Garrison describes three periods of distance education (Garrison, 1985). His timeline starts with a correspondence course period identified with the development of a large-scale postal system. This period was prominent for more than one hundreds years.\u00a0 Development of radio, record and tape players, along with movies and television is lumped into a second era.\u00a0 These two periods together lasted for perhaps 75 years.\u00a0 A period of computer and Internet use marks the third and final period in this perspective.\u00a0 This era has been underway for 50 years.\u00a0 There appears to be a shrinking time horizon for technology changes in distance education.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Terry Anderson\u00a0and\u00a0Jon Dron derive three distinct technological periods in distance education.\u00a0 The periods generally conform to those outlined by Garrison.\u00a0 They believe the periods are cumulative in their impact, meaning that the new technologies are layered on one another and create unique learning contexts.\u00a0 Teaching and learning modes adhere to a basic set of requirements, but the constellation of parts shifts with each period.\u00a0 They use a community of inquiry model to analyze the periods, with a focus on teaching, cognitive, and social presence.\u00a0 The three periods are described.<\/p>\n \u201cThe first generation of distance education technology was by postal correspondence.\u00a0 This was followed by a second generation, defined by the mass media of television, radio, and film production.\u00a0 Third-generation distance education (DE) introduced interactive technologies: first audio, then text, video, and then web and immersive conferencing\u201d (Anderson\u00a0and\u00a0Dron, 2011).<\/p>\n These periods were not isographic in their implementation but rather homographic in describing distinct periods of learning. \u00a0That is to say they have resemblances in growth processes but not a one-to-one match in evolution.\u00a0 \u201cEach era developed distinct pedagogies, technologies, learning activities, and assessment criteria, consistent with the social worldview of the era in which they developed\u201d (Anderson<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0Dron<\/strong>, 2011).<\/p>\nAnderson<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0Dron<\/strong> saw these periods not in terms of technology but in the prevailing pedagogical approach.\u00a0 At first, in the correspondence course, the approach was behavioral-cognitive, suitable for classes that are generally independent studies.\u00a0 In the radio and television period, there was a community of inquiry approach to encourage participation in depersonalized environments.\u00a0 More recently in the Internet Era, the focus is often on constructivist approaches to deepen discourse that is the essence of humanities and social science education.<\/p>\nDenise Casey imagines four periods of distance education.\u00a0 The eras grew out of and reflect geographic and socio-economic distances, the need for general education, and the \u201crapid development of technology\u201d (Casey, 2008).\u00a0 Casey saw four distinct ages: postal, radio, television, and a combined computer and communication time.\u00a0 Breaking audio and video periods of distance education seems to reflect the distinctiveness of these types of communication.<\/p>\n Distance education of course did not arise out of a vacuum.\u00a0 In early history, education was largely limited to persons of power and privilege, and especially religion.\u00a0 Churches used distance education to spread belief systems and educate the priest class.\u00a0 It was also later part of a solution for schooling people who could not access face-to-face learning environments.<\/p>\n When did distance education begin?\u00a0 Arguably, humans have been learning from other humans, though separated by large distances, for millennia.\u00a0 Tool-making techniques and cultural practices spread over thousands of miles.\u00a0 Archeologists in Spain found a carved female figurine made from mammoth tusk that originated in Siberia that date back 35,00 years.\u00a0 The carving was no doubt acquired via trade but presumably was accompanied by a related story that gave it meaning and information for the buyers.\u00a0 It was a transfer of technology.\u00a0 The figurine no doubt inspired other carvings.<\/p>\n Soon after the start of the last millennium, the teachings of Apostle Paul were hand copied and mailed or hand-carried to the many cities along the Mediterranean Sea.\u00a0 In these places, literate people read the missives aloud (a sort of Podcast) to the masses that came to listen. \u00a0One could argue this was distance learning.<\/p>\n The instruction of royal children in the Middle Ages relied on private tutors who communicated by mail and courier.\u00a0 These classes were often hybrid arrangements with both the student and tutor travelling for instruction.\u00a0 Such hybrid courses were highly seasonal.\u00a0 In winter, students would travel to the warmer coasts.\u00a0 During the summer, teachers would travel to more to inland locations.<\/p>\n The Catholic Church was a singular source of distance education.\u00a0 Church figures were often some of the few literate people in the community and taught Bible courses of their own.\u00a0 Church instruction also depended on a system of travelling tutors (see Table 2) with a select clientele.\u00a0 Other religions spread out over large geographic distances (Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism, Hinduism, Shintoism, and others also) had proto-types of distance education systems, not only to ordain to the faithful but also to spread the faith and gain new adherents.\u00a0 The church would remain a pillar of distance education for many centuries.
\nTable 2
\nPre- History of Distance Education<\/p>\n \n\n\nType of Learning<\/strong><\/td>\nWhen<\/strong><\/td>\nHow Disseminated<\/strong><\/td>\nMode of Delivery<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| 1.\u00a0 Letters Read Aloud to Groups<\/td>\n | 30-50 AD<\/td>\n | Teachings of Apostle Paul (and other religions)<\/td>\n | Letters read aloud to groups; missionaries<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| 2.\u00a0 Letters to Individual People<\/td>\n | 500-1500<\/td>\n | Education of Royals and Privileged Class<\/td>\n | Letters to individuals, hybrid; often church based<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n <\/p>\n This research looks at more organized systems of distance education and builds from the noted studies.\u00a0 It takes the view that technology does play a powerful role in shaping the basic pedagogical approaches in each period.\u00a0 It benchmarks the Correspondence, Radio, Television and Internet Eras as key markers representing four periods of distance education and technological evolution.<\/p>\n First<\/u>, the written correspondence period began on an organized basis in the early 1800s, relying on adoption of universal postal access by the public.\u00a0 A second<\/u> period followed in the early 1900s with the advent of radio.\u00a0 A third<\/u> period began in the 1950s with the widespread use of television.\u00a0 The fourth<\/u> period was the global use of Internet technologies that began around 1990.<\/p>\n The technological eras were both ground breaking and enabling.\u00a0 The first and fourth periods were about creating tools for the general public, while the second and third periods introduced entirely new modes of communication.\u00a0 The Internet grew as a medium of aggregation for written correspondence, voice, and visual representations (see Table 3).<\/p>\n Table 3
\nDistance Education by Mode, Vehicle, and Time<\/p>\n \n\n\nDistance Mode<\/strong><\/td>\nTechnology Vehicle<\/strong><\/td>\n\u00a0Time of Introduction<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| Written Correspondence<\/td>\n | Sea and land transport<\/td>\n | Mid 1700s<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Audio: Radio and Recordings<\/td>\n | Radio<\/td>\n | Early 1900s<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Visual: Movie and Television<\/td>\n | Television<\/td>\n | About 1950<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Internet Availability<\/td>\n | World Wide Web<\/td>\n | About 1990<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n <\/p>\n Another way the periods differ is by directionality of interaction.\u00a0 In the past, distance communications were generally one-way, particularly correspondence courses.\u00a0 Radio and television broadcasts had no two-way means of discourse.\u00a0 Even correspondence courses were simple grading exercises but no real interaction given the time required for transport.\u00a0 The newest period is fundamental in bringing back the two-way mode of communication that humans are accustomed to.\u00a0 The Internet period also facilitates the joining of writing, voice, and visual to form an educational whole.\u00a0 Teaching today is often about unpacking these aggregations of knowledge (see Table 4).
\nTable 4
\nDistance Education by Mode, Vehicle, Time, Interaction, and Layer<\/p>\n \n\n\nDistance Mode<\/strong><\/td>\nInteraction Type<\/strong><\/td>\nEducational Layer<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| Written Correspondence<\/td>\n | One-way<\/td>\n | Writing\/Reading<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Audio: Radio and Recordings<\/td>\n | One-way<\/td>\n | Speaking\/Listening<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Visual: Movie and Television<\/td>\n | One-way<\/td>\n | Creating\/Watching<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Internet<\/td>\n | Two-way<\/td>\n | Aggregating\/Unpacking<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n- Written Correspondence Period<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Distance and hybrid courses have been taught for centuries.\u00a0 Citizens of British colonies in North America often took correspondence courses for higher education prior to the founding of Harvard University in 1636 (though the College of William and Mary would argue it began earlier).\u00a0 For the majority of the population seeking higher education in the Americas, correspondence courses were the only alternative to travelling back to Europe for education.<\/p>\n Imagine the reality of these distance courses.\u00a0 Students would wait at least three months for feedback on assignments, travelling across the Atlantic on clipper ships, largely to Britain, Spain, and France, to established academic institutions.\u00a0 As a result, courses ordinarily took much longer than the now-recognized semester or quarter system and often required a year to complete.\u00a0 Students today of course would rightfully complain if a professor failed to return a paper in three months.<\/p>\n It is also important to note that this pedagogical construct was not based on classes with interaction between a teacher and students.\u00a0 Rather, these were independent studies with very intermittent interactions.\u00a0 The classes were missing the learning that comes from student-to-student interactions and the role of the instructor in translating and articulating the materials into learning experiences.\u00a0 For the faculty member, it was a much more laborious teaching process that had no economies of scale.<\/p>\n Correspondence courses open to the public came later.\u00a0 Charlie Osbourne finds that the \u201cearliest distance education courses may date back to the early 18th century in Europe.\u00a0 One of the earliest examples was from a 1728 advertisement in the Boston Gazette for “Caleb Phillips, Teacher of the new method of Short Hand,” who sought students wanting to learn through weekly mailed lessons (Holmberg, 2005).\u00a0 These courses were advertised both in print and by travelling salesmen.<\/p>\n Correspondence education, on an organized basis, began in the mid-nineteenth century, largely in Great Britain, France, Germany, and the United States (University of Florida, 2015).\u00a0 The English educator, Sir Isaac Pitman, taught shorthand by mail starting in 1840.\u00a0 In the United States, there were several enterprises in adult education that also used the postal system.<\/p>\n Early courses often focused not on technical subjects but on knowledge of certain books.\u00a0 This education was largely religious teaching based on the Bible, and later an understanding of the classics (i.e., Aristotle or Socrates).\u00a0 Law was also taught by correspondence course, which is ironic since law schools today are the least likely academic institution to accept online learning as part of their curriculum.<\/p>\n The focus of distance education shifted from men to women over time. \u00a0For women, courses were generally used to make them \u201cinteresting\u201d in social circles, so they learned how to play musical instruments and dance (Osborne, 2012).\u00a0 As women entered the work force they also sought technical skills.\u00a0 Thus, correspondence courses, over time, emphasized taking shorthand or typing and were aimed at women.<\/p>\n In 1873, Anna Ticknow began a series of courses for women to study at home. \u00a0Her organization provided correspondence instruction to more than 10,000 students for 24 years (Nasseh, 2001).\u00a0 Communication, teaching and learning all took place through printed materials sent through the mail.\u00a0 Ticknor\u2019s \u201cSociety to Encourage Studies at Home\u201d offered 24 classes and student enrollment peaked at 1,000 in 1882 (Berg, 2005, p. 1007).\u00a0 Many courses were aimed at teaching work force skills but there were also language courses are still taught in large numbers, especially French.<\/p>\n It should also be noted that Ticknor herself was a disabled woman.\u00a0 She thus encountered problems of education in her personal life and saw how people in her situation needed alternatives to the traditional classroom.<\/p>\n Cornell University attempted to establish a Correspondence University based out of its Ithaca, NY campus in 1883.\u00a0 It did not succeed. \u00a0But in the same year the first official recognition of correspondence education took place.\u00a0 Chautauqua College of Liberal Arts in the state of New York offered degrees through correspondence education and summer workshops, which used both distance and hybrid formats.<\/p>\n Skills to fuel the Industrial Revolution encouraged the development of distance courses.\u00a0 Thomas J. Foster started home-study courses in mine safety in the 1880s. \u00a0This set of instruction grew over time to become the International Correspondence School.\u00a0 In 1883, the subsequent Correspondence University was a consortium established between 32 U.S. higher education units.\u00a0 The students were given certificates of completion, often on a course-by-course basis.\u00a0 There was however no unified program that led to any type of degree (Berg, 2005, p. 1007).<\/p>\n One of the drivers of U.S. distance education growth at the end of the 19th<\/sup> century was the geographic separation in the country as it stretched west.\u00a0 Correspondence courses pre-dated organized school systems in these frontier areas and grew to be vehicles for educating people with physical handicaps, as was the case with Ann Tickner (Berg, 2005, p. 1007).<\/p>\nHybrid versions of correspondence courses also employed an old technology.\u00a0 Lanternslides were glass images on plates that could be projected and seen by audiences.\u00a0 They began use perhaps by the 16th<\/sup> century probably with a simple lantern and bed sheet hung on a wall.\u00a0 By replacing a series of glass slides, the projection of the lantern could show a series of instructions.\u00a0 The process had become much more sophisticate by the early 1900s.\u00a0 The lanternslide was an early version of PowerPoint.<\/p>\nIf we compare the correspondence course period to today there are many startling similarities.\u00a0 In the 1920s, over 4 million Americans were enrolled in correspondence courses at the college or university level.\u00a0 This total exceeded the number attending face-to-face courses.\u00a0 But the academic record was abysmal and rivals the reality of the contemporary MOOC (Massive Open Online Course).\u00a0 Their course completion rate for correspondence courses in the 1920s was under 3 percent, about the same as modern MOOCs (Kett, 1996, pp. 236-8).<\/p>\n A 1926 Carnegie Commission Report was commissioned to examine the state of distance education at this time.\u00a0 They had four significant observations.<\/p>\n \n- In higher education, more students were in correspondence courses than in traditional programs.<\/li>\n
- Three-quarters of U.S. adults had no other access to academic training programs.<\/li>\n
- Rigors of instruction and course material lacked quality control and standardization.<\/li>\n
- Systems for identity verification were notably absent (Berg, 2005, p. 1007).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
One concern for correspondence courses was their quality.\u00a0 Along with the known reputed institutions there were also many frauds and connivers.\u00a0 Early courses suffered significant downturns in the early 1900s for a variety of reasons.\u00a0 The sliding in educational quality has been attributed to the growth of for-profit institutions and the subsequent weakening of educational standards (Berg, 2005, p. 1007).<\/p>\n Vocational courses drove enrollment in distance education, but its roots in religious education remained strong.\u00a0 Even in 1960, it is estimated that 32 Bible schools had enrolled a quarter of a million students per year in some sort of distance learning course (Berg, 2005, p. 1007).<\/p>\n \n- Audio Period<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Broadcast radio was new in the 1920s and soon thereafter free distance education programs began sprouting up.\u00a0 In 1922,\u00a0New York University\u00a0(NYU) operated its own radio station, with plans to broadcast practically all its courses. \u00a0(Compare that to the promise by some universities today to put online all their class materials.)\u00a0 Other universities followed NYU\u2019s lead, including Columbia, Harvard, Kansas, Ohio, Purdue, Wisconsin, Utah and many others. \u00a0The courses however were ineffective and did not fit into any clear degree program and, more importantly, lacked a payment mechanism.<\/p>\n Radio classes built on the prior lessons from the correspondence courses.\u00a0 Students read textbooks and listened to broadcast lectures, and mailed in answers to tests. \u00a0Radio was hailed as the new way of learning and a means for greater dissemination of public information.\u00a0 The U.S. federal government granted over 200 radio broadcast licenses between 1918 and 1946 to educational institutions (Craig, 2005).<\/p>\n The radio means of instruction never caught on in the United States. \u00a0Douglas Craig concludes \u201cmany university stations began operations with high hopes of bringing education to the masses, but soon faltered as broadcasting costs increased, audiences diminished, and professors demonstrated that lecture-hall brilliance did not always translate into good radio technique.\u00a0 These problems were quickly reflected in an unfavorable allocation of frequency or broadcast times, sending many of these stations into a downward spiral to oblivion (Craig, 2005).<\/p>\n By 1940, only one college-level credit course was offered through instructional radio.\u00a0 Completion rates were very low and cheating was hard to detect. \u00a0By the 1940s, radio courses had virtually disappeared in the United States.<\/p>\n Outside of the United States however radio courses thrived in some places. \u00a0In Australia, the Schools of Air used two-way short wave radio for instruction and to interact with remote students, starting in 1951.\u00a0 Radio was also heavily used in the 1950s in Canada for remote education.<\/p>\n One early innovation was in 1935 when New York University professor C. C. Clark taught a course with a two-way radio (it can send and receive broadcasts).\u00a0 This effort began to create a classroom environment since he could repeat questions and answer them.<\/p>\n In South America, the broadcast medium itself served as a source of controversy.\u00a0 There were some objections to the dialect of Spanish used, but the biggest complaint was that places such as Guatemala and Peru had large populations of non-Spanish speakers.<\/p>\n Audiotapes mailed to students for a long period were used in correspondence courses, especially the teaching of foreign languages (Teaster and Blieszner, 1999). \u00a0The evolution of distance education by distinct periods (defined by technology) belies an additive process.\u00a0 For example, the addition of radio to the correspondence course model provided an audio supplement to traditional reading assignments.\u00a0 Learning technologies use multiple media and incorporate earlier technological manifestations.<\/p>\n \n- Video Period<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
Some educators wanted to use a new invention, moving pictures, for education (Novak, 2012).\u00a0 Visual broadcast capacity was the next phase in the evolution of distance education.\u00a0 This era spanned several inter-technological advances.\u00a0 It began with moving pictures and filmstrips, added audio, and continued with the wide-scale diffusion of television.<\/p>\n The very first films began in the 1890s and were generally only several minutes in length.\u00a0 This was at first a technological limitation.\u00a0 Today, online instructional designers advocate using very short videos, but ironically the technology is not the reason.\u00a0 Rather, it is an assumption of learning timespans for today\u2019s students.<\/p>\n At first, movies only included visuals and text and this limited it as a teaching tool.\u00a0 Movies did not include sound until 1927, but it made a complete difference in its use in an educational setting.\u00a0 This period also begins a new phase in remote education.\u00a0 Educational films arose in France and Russia, and emerged in Europe and North America within a few years.<\/p>\n In 1934\u00a0the University of Iowa became the first higher education institution to use\u00a0television\u00a0as a learning tool.\u00a0 These tools were limited to groups sitting around a television and watching point-to-point broadcasts, since there was no commercial television industry then. \u00a0The first organized televised classes over the airwaves started in the late 1940s at the University of Louisville.<\/p>\n Television built on the advances in radio and movie pictures.\u00a0 While \u201cthe first educational radio license was issued in 1921, the first educational television license [was issued] in 1945\u201d (Neal, 1999, p. 40).\u00a0 This suggests a period of substantial change in the modes of delivery in distance education courses.<\/p>\n Visual broadcasts were used in a variety of ways in distance education, including military and academia.\u00a0 During World War II, movies were used to train millions of draftees, as recorded lecturers could demonstrate use of physical equipment in live action.\u00a0 Sometimes these media were used to introduce uncomfortable topics (such as how to kill in combat).<\/p>\n The 1969 National Academy of Sciences report on computers and television in higher education found that (1) only a small part of learning occurs in the lecture halls and (2) the major purpose of education is to create a competent self-learner.\u00a0 These two goals were not thought to be impediments to effective online learning.\u00a0 Learning was not about where the class was held, but what happened in it.\u00a0 This finding reflects current trends in terms of authentic learning exercises and life-long learning in online formats (National Academy of Engineering, 1969, p. 1).\u00a0 Four conclusions about the state of distance education in 1969 follow that are of particular note.<\/p>\n First<\/em>, the instructor will need a complete re-understanding of his\/her function in the distance class.\u00a0 The traditional pure lecture model will not succeed.\u00a0 Rather, the role of the lecturer must be radically altered (National Academy of Engineering, 1969, p. 2).\u00a0 Some researchers today have loosely characterized this transition as going from the instructor as the \u201csage on the stage\u201d to the \u201cguide on the side\u201d.<\/p>\nSecond<\/em>, students will need to respond to this shift in their instructor\u2019s role.\u00a0 It will require realigning the learner\u2019s role in the course and the ability to re-create a social community.\u00a0 Creating a social presence for faculty will be a key issue in learning and will require student involvement.\u00a0 With the instructor as only a guide, the student must take on more responsibility in the learning process.\u00a0 The key need for the distance learner, in any period, is self-discipline and ability for self-learning.<\/p>\nThird<\/em>, when the entire course is moved to a distance format, there may be a feeling of student depersonalization (National Academy of Engineering, 1969, p. 2).\u00a0 This ensues due to the degradation of the \u201csage,\u201d or the central authority type, in the distance environments.\u00a0 The challenge of building a collaborative social community in distance formats always has unique aspects.\u00a0 A written correspondence course was a limited one-to-one interaction.\u00a0 A radio course evolved to a one-to-many interaction. \u00a0The television course combines the correspondence and radio era technologies.<\/p>\nFourth<\/em>, the turn to the new technologies is not solely important because it is innovative.\u00a0 It is important because it will be a means to address a number of socio-economic issues.\u00a0 It is a venue for reaching students with non-traditional learning styles.<\/p>\nThe NAS report also reviewed the effectiveness of computer-aided instruction (CAI), referring to \u201ca teaching machine\u201d and it\u2019s use in teaching.\u00a0 It found that CAI was not an effective teaching tool (National Academy of Engineering, 1969, p. 18).\u00a0 The teaching machine nonetheless evolved into computer-based teaching (CBT) modules of today.\u00a0 They remain rather poor teaching tools.<\/p>\n Jim Finn was one of the first researchers to analyze television as a learning tool.\u00a0 His 1953 study veered from traditional analysis of television.\u00a0 Most early research focused on the physical features of the machine and people\u2019s reaction or choices.\u00a0 This includes criteria such as the size of the screen, the brightness of the picture, or the clarity of the audio (Saba, 2013).<\/p>\n Finn looked beyond to the educational experience.\u00a0 He found that in some situations, television was an effective teaching medium.\u00a0 Accordingly, he identified five keys important to success in distance education (Kumata, 1960).<\/p>\n \n- Use of audience motivation<\/li>\n
- More faculty focus on subject matter preparation and integration with a teaching process<\/li>\n
- Appeal to differing learned audience intelligences<\/li>\n
- Retention is course-specific, TV or face-to-face has no differential effect upon recall of the subject matter<\/li>\n
- The learning medium is not the issue. Negative attitude towards the medium has no effect on learning achievements<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
At first, the promise of uniting television and education was enthralling.\u00a0 The original dream saw television as a medium that would liberate learning and offer access to education worldwide.\u00a0 After some time, it was assumed most Americans citizens could speak several languages, grasp basic physics, enjoy opera, had a working knowledge of chemistry, was aware of world history, and possessed a variety of other higher education interests and knowledge.<\/p>\n That is not how it turned out, and this was known early on.\u00a0 When Newton Minnow became the head of the Federal Communications Commission in 1961 he gave a renowned speech bemoaning the state of television in society.\u00a0 He called it a \u201cvast wasteland\u201d and believed \u201cthere are still not enough educational stations, and major centers of the country still lack usable educational channels\u201d (Minnow, 1961).<\/p>\n Minnow believed that television was not living up to its promise in delivering education.\u00a0 \u201cIf there were a limited number of printing presses in this country, you may be sure that a fair proportion of them would be put to educational use.\u201d\u00a0 Minnow also signaled that there was more to the public interest than simply what interests the public.\u00a0 He argued that \u201ceducational television has an enormous contribution to make to the future, and I intend to give it a hand along the way (Minnow, 1961).<\/p>\n \n- The Internet Period<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
The Information Revolution created conditions for more and greater social discourse in a class setting, but the value of these interactions is still under debate (National Academy of Engineering, 1969, p. 1).\u00a0 The enduring discussion about effective teachnology<\/em> intrudes in the Internet Era as in the others.<\/p>\nThe building of the Internet, and its wide availability to universities in the late 1980s, established a new phase in distance education.\u00a0 There were four distinct technology phases that encapsulated the phases of distance learning that followed: email, the web page, podcasts, and video broadcasts.\u00a0 All of these phases represent the incorporation of prior technological advances.<\/p>\n \n- Email: the New Corresponding Tool<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
The first phase of this rebuilding of distance education in the Internet Era was the introduction of email.\u00a0 The use of email harkened back to the correspondence course.\u00a0 It was a new mode of interaction that reduced time and ease of communication.\u00a0 Subsequent response delivery of feedback time fell from a few days to instantaneous.\u00a0 It also meant that discussions could be real time given proper scheduling.<\/p>\n After email, bulletin board systems (BBSs) created course discussions in synchronous time and are the predecessors of the modern blog. \u00a0\u201cThe first BBS or electronic \u2018Bulletin Board System\u2019 was developed and was opened to the public in 1979 by Ward Christensen\u201d (Borders, 2009).\u00a0 These attempts were the ancestors of the basic learning management system (LMS) that accelerated with the growth of the World Wide Web.\u00a0 The BBSs also inspired a variety of other systematic advances in communicating and storing information.<\/p>\n \n- The Web Page: Having Your Own Post Office<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
The second phase of the Internet Era was the creation of the World Wide Web (WWW) that began about 1990.\u00a0 WWW uses a graphical user interface and links to other system parts through hyper-links.\u00a0 This interface advance allowed the email-correspondence model to add a central point for holding an online class.\u00a0 The operational part of a class, that is the delivery of handouts or articles as well as the collecting of assignments, became automated.\u00a0 The course interface was also integrated with the new instant correspondence tool.\u00a0 The basic web page became a portal to an online class.\u00a0 Course materials could be made available, assignment given, discussions held (thanks to email), and papers or quizzes submitted.<\/p>\n In the late mid-1990s I taught an online class with only email and a web page.\u00a0 I knew a little HTML and instructed students who prepared materials that I could easily post.\u00a0 We also met in person overseas in Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates so the distance aspect of the course was part of a hybrid approach.\u00a0 This sort of class, and I was not the only one to do this, pre-dated any of the burgeoning learning management systems of today.\u00a0 But the issues of teaching and learning still loomed large.\u00a0 How to facilitate a good discussion?\u00a0 What are the best tools for learning?<\/p>\n \n- Podcasts: Audio Period Redux<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
The basic web page offered only limited tools for adding materials beyond text.\u00a0 From a simple file size viewpoint, the capacity for adding audio was far easier to introduce compared to video.\u00a0 Research also showed that seeing the picture of the speaker did not add much to the overall learning experience and could be listened to outside of traditional platforms (like the Walkman, one of the first audio systems with headphones).\u00a0 Apple popularized the process (hence the IPod and the Podcast), but these were simply formats for uploading audio files to web sites.<\/p>\n \n- Broadband: The New Television Period<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
The fourth phase of the Internet Era introduced the use of broadband technology to enhance video capabilities to Internet users.\u00a0 This development added to the ability of the teacher to replace the class lecture with parallel teaching mode.\u00a0 It added media capacity for students to create assignments and to have discussions within their course pages.\u00a0 This breakthrough allowed streaming media for classes, live webinars, and student video upload capabilities.<\/p>\n The ensuing trends in developing new technology platforms and approaches, such as more advanced learning management systems (LMSs) or Massive, Open, Online Courses (MOOCs).\u00a0 The MOOC recombines the breakthroughs in technology that have seen earlier incarnations.\u00a0 It is simply a reprise of the massive courses taught to hundreds of students (typically introductory courses) with an instructor and an army of teaching assistants.\u00a0 What has changed is the nature of the institutional presence and support for such classes.\u00a0 It is not a new idea but only recombined.\u00a0 The Internet Era is still a mix of the basic tools of writing, speaking, and watching in distance formats (see Table 5).<\/p>\n Table 5
\nDistance Education Success and Contributing Factors<\/p>\n \n\n\nDistance Mode<\/strong><\/td>\nInstructor Interaction<\/strong><\/td>\nStudent Social Presence<\/strong><\/td>\nPrograms & Identity<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\nEmail Written
\nCorrespondence<\/td>\n | Much quicker, ability to cut and paste<\/td>\n | Low-to-medium, start of real discussion<\/td>\n | Harder, but possible<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Podcasts<\/td>\n | Simple to record and listen<\/td>\n | Some two-way interactions<\/td>\n | A real human voice<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Web Page<\/td>\n | Ability to Post Materials<\/td>\n | Increased teacher to student connection<\/td>\n | Capacity to track downloads<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Broadband Video<\/td>\n | Re-Use of live events<\/td>\n | Not greatly impacted<\/td>\n | Recordings of teacher and others<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n <\/p>\n Distance learning issues reverberate through time.\u00a0 The technology enables new modes of learning, but the basic problem to overcome, the separation of place and time, remains constant.\u00a0 Table 6 shows six prevailing distance issues that endure over time, and which periods encountered certain issues.\u00a0 A particular focus is on comparisons to today\u2019s key issues (see Table 6). \u00a0Distance education is getting better at re-creating a class environment and reducing de-personalization.<\/p>\n Table 6
\nDistance Learning Issues Through Time (Issue by Historic Era)<\/p>\n \n\n\nIssue<\/strong><\/td>\nCorrespondence<\/strong><\/td>\nRadio<\/strong><\/td>\nTelevision<\/strong><\/td>\nInternet<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| Single Student Focus*<\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n | <\/td>\n | <\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Low Completion Rate<\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Poor Course Quality<\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n | <\/td>\n | <\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Weak Production Value<\/td>\n | <\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| No Oversight of Cheating & ID Problems<\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Depersonalization of Learning<\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n | <\/p>\n <\/td>\n | <\/td>\n | X<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n *\u00a0\u00a0 The tendency of courses to be less of a collective class and more a set of related independent students.<\/p>\n Two issues show up through the four time periods: \u201cLow Completion Rate\u201d and \u201cCheating & ID Problems.\u201d\u00a0 The two probably are symptomatic of the \u201cDepersonalization of Learning\u201d nature of the course that is especially noteworthy in the Correspondence Course Era and the Internet Era.\u00a0 The \u201cSingle Student Focus\u201d and \u201cPoor Course Quality\u201d issues (that describes the tendency of courses to be less of a collective class and more a set of related independent students) also resonate in the Correspondence Course period and the Internet Era.<\/p>\n Online courses today are augmented with discussion boards (the Correspondence Era), audio files (from the Radio Era), videos (from the Television Era), and features of the Internet Era, including web sites and videoconferencing.<\/p>\n III.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Next Phase: Reality Education<\/p>\n When comparing the evolution of distance education by the technology period the natural impulse is to think about gains on the basis of productivity.\u00a0 It is a mistake in conjuring the analogy that the purpose of education is to add more students or provide greater revenues. \u00a0Educating more students however is not the sole goal of distance education.\u00a0 Rather, education must consider the quality of instruction alongside the quantity served.<\/p>\n It is a fallacy to equate productivity in education with the material gains realized in the Industrial Revolution.\u00a0 The Industrial Revolution made it possible for people to have more things at a cheaper price. \u00a0Can education also become so commercial that it is packaged and sold like widgets?\u00a0 The answer is no.\u00a0 This next revolution will not wind up embracing the economy-of-scale model.\u00a0 The MOOC platform therefore, emphasizing the one to thousands approach, except where other alternatives are absent, will not be the future.\u00a0 Rather, the emphasis will be on recreating the real classroom and authentic classes that necessarily embrace smaller cohorts of learning.<\/p>\n The challenges will not be in the technology.\u00a0 The real trials will be in how to embrace new types of learning, different approaches to teaching, and alternative assignments and the means to assess them.\u00a0 These will occur in reaction to the capabilities and the needs of the still evolving Internet Era.<\/p>\n Reality education is the next evolution that will re-shape the Internet Era and embrace the idea of real participation, just as each technological era has attempted to hold onto some semblance of the meaning of a traditional class and its rules and cadences.\u00a0 In the attempt to harken back to the desire for a face-to-face educational encounter, academia will borrow from the world of gaming.<\/p>\n This approach makes sense given where students are today.\u00a0 Learners are familiar with role-playing platforms in the various games of popular interest and that use Internet platforms.\u00a0 The student that is comfortable with an Xbox reality gaming can find a niche in the educational world.\u00a0 The games can be against a machine, with a small group of known acquaintances, or in global world that is often anonymous.\u00a0 Simulations are one area of possible application.<\/p>\n The attempt to incorporate virtual students into real (virtual) classrooms will perhaps revive Second Life or something like it.\u00a0 For a time, starting 2006 when it was on the cover of Business Week<\/em>, Second Life was often hailed a \u201csecond coming\u201d, at least for education.\u00a0 But the phenomenon quickly peaked and died back.\u00a0 It was never really able to make a connection to the educational world, though clearly it attempted to link to the evolution of popular gaming experiences.<\/p>\nSecond Life is an example of the MultiUser Visual Experiences (or MUVEs) and a means to use semi-real interactions in the distance education experience.\u00a0 Halo is another example (Smith and Berge, 2009), a science fiction virtual reality game owned by a subsidiary of Microsoft.\u00a0 World of Warcraft<\/em> (WoW<\/em>) is a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) and had 10 million subscribers in 2014.<\/p>\nDissatisfaction with the impersonality of current modes of distance education will offer opportunities where students are required to have a class avatar.\u00a0 They will attend a real-time class on a campus.\u00a0 There will be places around the campus where students will go in real time.\u00a0 Bookstores or video check out lines would be places where students might run into one another in a virtual world. \u00a0If geography allowed, there might even be a mix between virtual and real meetings.<\/p>\n Breakthroughs such as Google Glass, or a variety of other wearable video devices, will also be vehicles for sharing class experiences in a more intimate fashion (even though this product seems to have gone back on the shelf at Google for further development).\u00a0 Some examples are already appearing.\u00a0 Surgeons have made training videos using MUVE devices (Edwards, 2014).<\/p>\n No doubt the push to require police to use MUVE\u2019s will lead to training videos used in both online and in-person classes.\u00a0 For students, this would allow them to check in from interesting places related to curriculum, for both in-class and outside of class participation and interaction.\u00a0 Many other fields could also use MUVE\u2019s as part of training or in-situ demonstrations or lectures.\u00a0 The Oculus Rift virtual-reality headset is another example along the same lines.\u00a0 There could even be sub-dermal chips implanted in people that allow for an entirely different level of personal intimacy.\u00a0 For health and nutrition classes, this might be an course requirement.<\/p>\n Other devices such as a phone camera can capture the entirety of human experiences, for better or worse. The addition of wearable devices guarantees a degree of interaction that is clearly more dedicated and purposed.\u00a0 The devices will allow a very personal level of discourse that can interact with real facsimiles of people or their avatars (Sivakumar, 2014).<\/p>\n The point is to bring back the necessary elements of the teacher to student relationship.\u00a0 Rebuilding presence in a distance education course requires creating a social presence \u2013 \u201c<\/em>the extent to which a student\u2019s true self is projected and perceived in an online course\u201d (Rourke, Anderson, Garrison, and Archer, 2001).<\/p>\nThese personalized experiences will have other educational uses.\u00a0 Facial recognition could automatically tabulate attendance or link with the class avatar.\u00a0 A professor of history could walk through a museum and give a personalized lecture for a class.\u00a0 The students could then visit the MUVE of the museum (see Table 7) and add to the discussion.\u00a0 There could be in-person or remote visits to places.\u00a0 The new class will be a mix of real and virtual students in a new type of hybrid.<\/p>\n Table 7
\nThe Internet Phases of Distance Education<\/p>\n \n\n\nDistance Phase<\/strong><\/td>\nTechnology Vehicle<\/strong><\/td>\nTime<\/strong><\/td>\nInteraction Type<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| 1.\u00a0 Email<\/td>\n | Instant written<\/td>\n | 1985<\/td>\n | One-to-email-list<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| 2.\u00a0 The World Wide Web<\/td>\n | WWW site<\/td>\n | 1992<\/td>\n | One-to-world<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| 3.\u00a0 Audio-casting<\/td>\n | Instant audio<\/td>\n | 1996<\/td>\n | People-to-People<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| 4.\u00a0 Broadband<\/td>\n | Instant video<\/td>\n | 2005<\/td>\n | World-to-world<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n There are enduring pedagogical issues that appear in each stage of<\/p>\n distance education.\u00a0 Several researchers identify periods and modes of distance education that go back hundreds if not thousands of years.\u00a0 While these separate technologies have created differing learning styles and approaches, the problems of learning through such mediated technologies have remained fairly constant.<\/p>\n Even in this new period of re-defining the world of distance education, there will be many challenges for new technology.\u00a0 The training challenges for faculty and students will be enormous.\u00a0 But the approach may in fact shift to reduce the impersonality inherent to distance education.\u00a0 However, the door may swing too far in increasing personalization of people in classes.\u00a0 For example, something like wearing Google Glass would capture a lot more about a person and their behavior than simply attending a class.<\/p>\n Would a virtual environment invite individuals to take on personas vastly different from their real one?\u00a0 In a virtual reality class would one meet the real person or a personification?\u00a0 Nonetheless, the virtual presence opportunity may go a long way in bringing education back to its traditional roots.<\/p>\n From the beginning, the success of distance education rested on making a mutually beneficial connection between the teacher and the student. \u00a0Doing so requires a \u201cconfluence of three distinct types of presence; social, cognitive and teaching presence\u201d (Garrison, Anderson & Archer, 2000).\u00a0 This debate dates back to the correspondence courses.\u00a0 \u201cSince the birth of distance education over 150 years ago, there has been both a practitioner and academic interest in presence.\u00a0 The notion also covers the concept of \u201cbeing there,\u201d or being \u201cin the room\u201d despite physical separation (McKerlich, Riis, Anderson, and Eastman, 2011).<\/p>\n Ross McKerlich and a team of researchers see a future class as a search for ways to give a personal feeling to distance formats.\u00a0 These are \u201cvirtual worlds in which learners and teachers can readily create, use, and re-use learning objects, where planned and chance encounters abound and in which their presence is created and enhanced through avatar interaction are likely ideal contexts in which to develop and exploit connectivist learning pedagogies\u201d (McKerlich, Riis, Anderson, and Eastman, 2011).\u00a0 Sometimes going forward means going back.<\/p>\n References<\/strong><\/p>\nAnderson, Terry\u00a0and\u00a0Dron, Jon. (2011).\u00a0 \u201cThree Generations of Distance\u00a0Education Pedagogy,\u201d International Review of Research in Open and\u00a0<\/em>Distance<\/em> Learning<\/em>, Volume 12(3). <\/a>Accessed March 29, 2015:http:\/\/www.irrodl.org\/index.php\/irrodl\/article\/view\/890\/1663<\/p>\nBagwell, Christine, \u201cDistance Learning for Incarcerated Populations\u201d,\u00a0In Howard, Caroline, Judith V. Boettcher, Lorraine Justice, Karen Schenk, Rogers, Patricia L., and Berg Gary A. (eds.), Encyclopedia of <\/em>Distance Learning<\/em>, 2. \u00a0Hershey, Pa., and London: Idea Group Reference.\u00a0(2005). \u00a0<\/em>Information Resources Management Association.<\/p>\nBarrera, Luis.\u00a0 \u201cDistance Education in South America\u201d.\u00a0In Howard, Caroline, Judith V. Boettcher, Lorraine Justice, Karen Schenk, Rogers, Patricia L., and Berg Gary A. (eds.), Encyclopedia of \u00a0<\/em>Distance Learning<\/em>, 2. \u00a0Hershey, Pa., and London: Idea Group Reference. \u00a0(2005). \u00a0<\/em>Information Resources Management Association.\u00a0 DOI:10.4018\/978-1-59140-555-9, ch. 147.<\/p>\nBorders, Brett.\u00a0 (2009, June 2).\u00a0 \u201cA Short History of Social Media.\u201d\u00a0 Copy Brighter\u00a0Marketing, Accessed March 30, 2015: http:\/\/copybrighter.com\/history-of-social-media<\/p>\n Craig, Douglas B. (2005).\u00a0 Fireside Politics<\/em>:\u00a0Radio and Political Culture in the\u00a0<\/em>United States, 1920-1940<\/em>. Baltimore: JHU Press.<\/p>\nCasey, Denise M. \u00a0(2008, March\/April). \u201cA Journey to Legitimacy: The\u00a0Historical Development of Distance Education through Technology.\u201d\u00a0TechTrends<\/em> 52(2).<\/p>\n\u201cEducational Technology in Higher Education: The Promises and Limitations of\u00a0ITC and CAI\u201d, Instructional Technology Committee of the Commission on Education of the National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C., September, 1969.<\/p>\n Edwards, Jim, \u201cGoogle Glass Is Going To Be Huge, And Most People Have No\u00a0Idea Why\u201d, Business Insider<\/em>, June 14, 2014. \u00a0http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/google-glass-enterprise-business-and-security.<\/p>\nGarrison, D.R.\u00a0 (1985). \u201cThree Generations of technological innovations in\u00a0distance education.\u201d Distance Education<\/em> 6(2), pp. 235-241. Accessed\u00a0March 29, 2015:<\/p>\nClick to access garrison85.pdf<\/a><\/p>\nGarrison, D. R., Anderson, T., and Archer, W. (2000). \u201cCritical inquiry in a\u00a0text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education\u201d. The Internet and Higher Education<\/em>, 2(2-3), pp. 87-105.<\/p>\nGreenberg, G.\u00a0 (1998, Winter).\u00a0 \u201cDistance education technologies: Best practices\u00a0for K-12 settings.\u201d IEEE Technology and Society Magazine<\/em>, pp. 36-40.<\/p>\nGriffiths, Rebecca, Matthes Chingos, Christine Mulhern, and Richard Spies.\u00a0 (2014, July 10).\u00a0 \u201cInteractive Online Learning on Campus: Testing MOOCs and Other Platforms in Hybrid Formats in the University System of Maryland\u201d.<\/p>\n Holmberg, B\u00f6rje (2005).\u00a0The evolution, principles and practices of distance\u00a0<\/em>education<\/em>. Studien und Berichte der Arbeitsstelle Fernstudienforschung der Carl von Ossietzky Universit\u00e4t Oldenburg [ASF] (in German)\u00a011. Bibliotheks-und Informationssystem der Universitat Oldenburg.<\/p>\nHoward, Caroline, Judith V. Boettcher, Lorraine Justice, Karen Schenk, Rogers,\u00a0Patricia L., and Berg Gary A. (eds.). \u00a0Encyclopedia of Distance Learning<\/em>,\u00a0Volume 1.\u00a0 Hershey, Pa., and London: Idea Group Reference, 2005.<\/p>\nKett, Joseph\u00a0 (1994). \u00a0\u201cPursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties: From Self\u00a0Improvement to Adult Education in America, 1750-1990.\u201d\u00a0 Stanford, Ca., Stanford University Press.<\/p>\n Kumata, H. (1960).\u00a0 \u201cA decade of teaching by television.\u201d \u00a0In Schramm, W. (Ed,).\u00a0The impact of television:\u00a0Selected studies from the research<\/em>.\u00a0 Sponsored by the National Educational Television and Radio\u00a0Center. \u00a0Urbana, Ill., University of Illinois Press.<\/p>\nMcKerlich, Ross, Riis, Marianne, Anderson, Terry, and Eastman, Brad. \u00a0“Student Perceptions of Teaching Presence: Social Presence and Cognitive\u00a0Presence in a Virtual World\u201d, Journal of Online Learning and\u00a0<\/em>Teaching<\/em>, Vol. 7, No. 3, September 2011.\u00a0 Accessed March 29, 2015: \u00a0http:\/\/jolt.merlot.org\/vol7no3\/mckerlich_0911.htm<\/p>\nMerriam-Webster Dictionary<\/em>.\u00a0 Accessed December 27, 2014:http:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/distance%20learning<\/p>\nNasseh, Bizhan. \u00a0\u201cA Brief History of Distance Education.\u201d\u00a0<\/em>Senior Net<\/em>. Reprinted with permission from\u00a0Adult Education in the News<\/em>. \u00a0Retrieved April 3, 2001, from the World Wide Web. http:\/\/www.seniornet.org\/edu\/art\/history.html<\/p>\nNeal, Ed.\u00a0 (1999, Winter).\u00a0 \u201cDistance Education: Prospects and Problems.\u201d\u00a0 Phi<\/em><\/p>\nKappa Phi Journal<\/em> 79 (1), pp. 40-3.
\nNewton N. Minnow, Television and the Public Interest,\u201d speech to National
\nAssociation of Broadcasters, May 9, 1961.<\/p>\nNovak, Matt, \u201cPredictions for Educational TV in the 1930s\u201d, Smithsonian<\/em>,\u00a0May 29, 2012.\u00a0 http:\/\/www.smithsonianmag.com\/history\/predictions-for-educational-tv-in-the-1930s-107574983\/#9vc35yyGehYjk1HJ.99. Accessed May 25, 2015.
\nOsborne, Charlie, \u201cThe history of distance education\u201d, iGeneration<\/em>, April 1, 2012.http:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/blog\/igeneration\/the-history-of-distance-learning-infographic\/15791.\u00a0 Accessed May 25, 2015.<\/p>\nRourke, Liam, Anderson, Terry, Garrison, D. Randy, and Archer, Walter.\u00a0 (1999,\u00a0Fall.) \u00a0\u201cAssessing Social Presence In Asynchronous Text-based Computer Conferencing.\u201d\u00a0 Journal of Distance Education<\/em>.\u00a0 14,2 pp: 50-71.<\/p>\nSaba, Fred, \u201cIntroduction to Distance Education: Educational Television\u201d,
\nDistance-Educator.com, November 24, 2013.\u00a0 http:\/\/distance-educator.com\/introduction-to-distance-education-educational-television-2\/. \u00a0Accessed May 25, 2015.<\/p>\n Smith, Michele, and Zane L. Berge, \u201cSocial Learning Theory in Second <\/em>Life\u201d, Journal of Learning and Teaching<\/em>, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2009, http:\/\/jolt.merlot.org\/vol5no2\/berge_0609.htm.\u00a0 Accessed May 25, 2015.<\/p>\nShareef, Ali Fawaz and Kinshuk. (2005). \u201cDistance Education in Small Island\u00a0Nations.\u201d\u00a0 In Howard, Caroline, Judith V. Boettcher, Lorraine Justice, Karen Schenk, Rogers, Patricia L., and Berg Gary A. (eds.), Encyclopedia of <\/em>\u00a0Distance Learning<\/em>, 2. \u00a0Hershey, Pa., and London: Idea Group Reference.\u00a0 (2005). \u00a0<\/em>Information Resources Management Association.<\/p>\nSivakumar R. “Google Glass in Education” CONFLUX Journal of Education\u00a0<\/em>02.02 (2014): 27-30.\u00a0 Available at: http:\/\/works.bepress.com\/sivakumar\/1<\/span><\/p>\nSmith, Michele and Berge, Zane L., \u201cSocial Learning Theory in Second Life\u201d,\u00a0<\/em>\u201cJournal of Learning and Teaching<\/em>\u201d, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2009,\u00a0http:\/\/jolt.merlot.org\/vol5no2\/berge_0609.htm\u00a0Accessed May 25, 2015.<\/p>\nTeaster, P., and Blieszner, R. (1999). \u201cPromises and pitfalls of the interactive\u00a0television approach to teaching adult development and aging.\u201d\u00a0Educational Gerontology, 25 <\/em>(8), pp. 741-754.
\nUniversity of Florida, \u201cEvolution of Distance Education: History\u201d,Accessed May 25, 2015.\u00a0http:\/\/iml.jou.ufl.edu\/projects\/spring01\/declair\/history.html<\/p>\n <\/p>\n <\/p>\n <\/p>\n <\/p>\n <\/p>\n <\/p>\n <\/p>\n <\/p>\n <\/p>\n <\/p>\n <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" Lectures on Distance Learning Over Time (right-click on links to open in a new tab) Go to\u00a0Correspondence Course History\u00a0Lecture Go to Radio Course History\u00a0Lecture Go to Television Course History\u00a0Lecture What Does the History of Distance Education Tell Us About Training Today\u2019s Students? Here are two findings on why it is imperative to adopt and […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-713","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack-related-posts":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/mandalaprojects.com\/wordpress\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/713","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/mandalaprojects.com\/wordpress\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/mandalaprojects.com\/wordpress\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mandalaprojects.com\/wordpress\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mandalaprojects.com\/wordpress\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=713"}],"version-history":[{"count":9,"href":"https:\/\/mandalaprojects.com\/wordpress\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/713\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":985,"href":"https:\/\/mandalaprojects.com\/wordpress\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/713\/revisions\/985"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/mandalaprojects.com\/wordpress\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=713"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}} | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |